iSoul In the beginning is reality.

Category Archives: Space & Time

Explorations of multidimensional space and time with linear and angular motion.

Space and time as frames

July 23, 2020 12:16 pm ⋅

An observer is a body capable of use as a measurement apparatus. An inertial observer is an observer in inertial motion, i.e., one that is not accelerated with respect to an inertial system. An observer here shall mean an inertial observer.

An observer makes measurements relative to a frame of reference. A frame of reference is a physical system relative to which motion and rest may be measured. An inertial frame is a frame in which Newton’s first law holds (a body either remains at rest or moves in uniform motion, unless acted upon by a force). A frame of reference here shall mean an inertial frame.

A rest frame of observer P is a frame at rest relative to P. A motion frame of observer P is a frame in uniform motion relative to P. Each observer has at least one rest frame and at least one motion frame associated with it. An observer’s rest frame is three-dimensional, but their motion frame is effectively one-dimensional, that is, only one dimension is needed.

Space is the geometry of places and lengths in R3. A place point (or placepoint) is a point in space. The space origin is a reference place point in space. The location of a place point is the space vector to it from the space origin. Trime (3D time) is the geometry of times and durations in R3. A time point (or timepoint) is a point in trime. The time origin is a reference time point in trime. The chronation of a time point is the trime vector to it from the time origin.

A frame of reference is unmarked if there are no units specified for its coordinates. A frame of reference is marked by specifying (1) units of either length or duration for its coordinates and (2) an origin point. A space frame of observer P is a rest frame of P that is marked with units of length. A time frame of observer P is a motion frame of P that is marked with units of duration.

Speed, velocity, and acceleration require an independent motion frame. Pace, lenticity, and retardation require an independent rest frame. These independent frames are standardized as clocks or odologes so they are the same for all observers.

Let there be a frame K1 with axes a1, a2, and a3, that is a rest frame of observer P1, and let there be a motion frame K2 with axes a´1, a´2, and a´3, that is a motion frame of P1 along the coincident a1-a´1 axis. See Figure 1.

Two frames

Figure 1

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Vectors and Functions in Space and Time

July 21, 2020 1:13 pm ⋅

A pdf version of this post is here.

The time velocity of an n-dimensional vector variable or vector-valued function Δx per unit of an independent scalar variable t equals

Similarly, the space lenticity with Δt and Δx, respectively:

The rate of a scalar variable Δx per unit of an independent n-dimensional vector variable or vector-valued function Δt equals

The same except with Δt and Δx, respectively:

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Galilean decompositions of the Lorentz transformation

July 8, 2020 9:20 am ⋅

The background for this post is here.

For space with time (3+1):

The gamma transformation (matrix Γ) expresses the time dilation of clocks and length contraction of rods with a relative speed:

\begin{pmatrix} \gamma & 0 \\ 0 & 1/\gamma \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} t \\ x \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \gamma t \\ x/\gamma \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} t' \\ x' \end{pmatrix}

Use vector (t  x)T. The gamma transformation is conjugate to the Lorentz boost (matrix Λ) by the Galilean transformations (G, GT), i.e., GTΓG = Λ:

\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ -\beta & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} \gamma & 0 \\ 0 & 1/\gamma \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1 & -\beta \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \gamma & -\beta \gamma \\ -\beta \gamma & \gamma \end{pmatrix}

or

\begin{pmatrix} 1 & -\beta \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1/\gamma & 0 \\ 0 & \gamma \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ -\beta & 1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \gamma & -\beta \gamma \\ -\beta \gamma & \gamma \end{pmatrix}

This expands to

\begin{pmatrix} 1 & -\beta \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1/\gamma & 0 \\ 0 & \gamma \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ -\beta & 1 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & -\beta \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1/\gamma & -\beta\gamma \\ 0 & \gamma \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \gamma & -\beta \gamma \\ -\beta \gamma & \gamma \end{pmatrix}

The matrix second from the right represents the Tangherlini transformation (or inertial synchronized Tangherlini transformation).

For time with space (1+3):

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Lorentz transformation derivations

July 6, 2020 4:08 pm ⋅

What follows are four derivations of the Lorentz transformation from the complete Galilei (Galilean) transformations in space with time (3+1) and time with space (1+3). Their intersection is linear space and time (1+1), which is the focus of the derivations. The other dimensions may be reached by rotations in space or time.

I. Space with Time (3+1)

Consider two inertial frames of reference O and O′, assuming O to be at rest while O′ is moving with velocity v with respect to O in the positive x-direction. The origins of O and O′ initially coincide with each other. A light signal is emitted from the common origin and travels as a spherical wave front. Consider a point P on a spherical wavefront at a distance x and x′ from the origins of O and O′ respectively. According to the second postulate of the special theory of relativity the speed of light, c, is the same in both frames, so for the point P:

x = ct, and x′ = ct′.

A. Time velocity

Define velocity v as the time velocity vt = ds/dt. Consider the standard Galilean transformation of ct and x with a factor γ, which is to be determined and may depend on β, where β = v/c:

x′ = γ(x − vt) = γ(x − βct) = γx(1 − β).

The inverse transformation is the same except that the sign of β is reversed:

x = γ(x′ + vt′) = γ(x + βct) = γx′(1 + β).

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Home is the horizon

July 4, 2020 12:21 pm ⋅

As there is an inverse or harmonic algebra, so there is an inverse geometry, an inverse space. Home, the origin, is the horizon, the ends of the earth, and beyond that, the celestial equator, the heavens. We may attempt to journey to the centre of the earth with Jules Verne, but we’ll never make it because it is infinitely far away. We cannot plumb the ultimate depths within, the deep well of the heart. At the centre of it all is a bottomless pit, the hell of eternal darkness.

concentric spheres

The geometric inverse is with respect to a circle or sphere:

circle with line segmentBy Krishnavedala

P’ is the inverse of P with respect to the circle. The inverse of the centre is the point at infinity.

The order of events in this geometry is their distance from the horizon, not the centre. The return to home is the end of events, the final event. The later the event, the better, since it is closer to the end, to home.

The destination is where we’ve come from and where we return. It is a round trip, a circuit, a cycle of life and change.

What we call the beginning is often the end
And to make an end is to make a beginning.
The end is where we start from. T. S. Eliot, Little Gidding

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Lorentz factor from light clocks

June 3, 2020 3:10 pm ⋅

Space and time are inverse perspectives on motion. Space is three dimensions of length. Time is three dimensions of duration. Space is measured by a rigid rod at rest, whereas time is measured by a clock that is always in motion relative to itself.

This is illustrated by deriving the Lorentz factor for time dilation and length contraction from light clocks. The first derivation is in space with a time parameter and the second is in time with a space parameter (placepoint).

The first figure above shows frame S with a light clock in space as a beam of light reflected back and forth between two mirrored surfaces. Call the height between the surfaces that the light beam travels distance h. Let one time cycle Δt = 2h/c or h = cΔt/2, with speed of light c, which is the maximum speed.

The second figure shows frame S´ with the same light clock as observed by someone moving with velocity v relative to S. Call the length of each half-cycle d, and call the length of the base of one cycle in space b.

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Proper and improper rates

May 28, 2020 7:08 pm ⋅

The independent quantity in a proper rate is the denominator. The independent quantity in an improper rate is the numerator. If a rate is multiplied by a quantity with the units of the independent quantity and the result has the units of the dependent quantity, it is proper. Otherwise, it is improper.

A proper rate becomes improper if the proper rate is inverted. An improper rate becomes proper if the improper rate is inverted. If two or more improper rates are added, each must first be inverted. The result of adding proper rates must be inverted again to return to the original improper rate. This is harmonic addition:

\frac{b}{a_{1}}+\frac{b}{a_{2}} \Rightarrow \left (\frac{a_{1}}{b}+\frac{a_{2}}{b} \right)^{-1}

If the addition of improper rates is divided by the number of addends so that it is the average or arithmetic mean of the inverted rates, then the result inverted is the harmonic mean:

\frac{1}{2}\left (\frac{b}{a_{1}}+\frac{b}{a_{2}} \right ) \Rightarrow \left ( \frac{1}{2} \left (\frac{a_{1}}{b}+\frac{a_{2}}{b} \right ) \right)^{-1}

Time speed is the speed of a body measured by the distance traversed in a known time, which is a proper rate because the independent quantity, time, is the denominator. Space speed is the speed of a body measured by the time it takes to transverse a known distance, which is an improper rate because the independent quantity, distance, is the numerator. Space speeds are averaged by the harmonic mean and called the space mean speed. The time mean speed is the arithmetic mean of time speeds.

Velocity normalized by the speed of light is proper because the invariant speed of light is independent. The speed of light divided by a velocity is improper and must be added harmonically. Lenticity normalized by an hypothesized maximum pace is proper, but if the lenticity is divided by the pace of light, it is improper.

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Space with time and their dual

May 20, 2020 2:25 pm ⋅

For the first post in this series see here.

Space with time (3+1)

Space is that which is measured by length; time is that which is measured by duration. There are three dimensions of length and one dimension (or parameter) of duration. Direction in space is measured by an angle, which is part of a circle.

Spatial rates are dependent on another variable, usually interval of time (distime).

Time is that which is measured by duration. Events are ordered by time. Time as an independent variable decreases from the past to the present and increases from the present to the future.

Temporal rates are dependent on another variable, usually the interval of space (stance).

Dual: time with space (1+3)

The dual of space with time is time with space. The dual of space is time and the dual of time is space. Space corresponds to time and time corresponds to space.

Time is that which is measured by duration; space is that which is measured by length. There are three dimensions of duration and one dimension (or parameter) of length. Direction in time is measured by a turn, which is part of a rotation.

Temporal rates are dependent on another variable, usually interval of space (stance).

Space is that which is measured by length. Events are ordered by length (stance). Space as an independent variable decreases from a past there to here and increases from here to a future there.

Spatial rates are dependent on another variable, usually the interval of time (distime). Read more →

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Set theory and logic and their dual

May 20, 2020 11:40 am ⋅

(1) Set theory and logic, (2) number and algebra, and (3) space and time are three foundational topics that each have duals. Let us begin with the standard approaches to these three topics, and then define duals to each of them. To some extent, the original and the dual may be used together.

(1) Set theory and logic

A set is defined by its elements or members. Its properties may also be known or specified, but what is essential to a set is its members, not its properties. The notation for “x is an element of set S” is “x ∈ S”. A subset is a set whose members are all within another set: “s is a subset of S” is “s ⊆ S”. If subset s does not (or cannot) equal S, then it is a proper subset: “s ⊂ S”.

The null set (∅) is a unique set defined as having no members. That is paradoxical but not contradictory. A universal set (Ω) is defined as having all members within a particular universe. An unrestricted universal set is not defined because it would lead to contradictions.

The complement of a set (c) is the set of all elements within a particular universe that are not in the set. A union (∪) of sets is the set containing all members of the referenced sets. An intersection (∩) of sets is defined as the set whose members are contained in every referenced set.

Set theory has a well-known correspondence with logic: negation (¬) corresponds to complement, disjunction (OR, ∨) corresponds to union, and conjunction (AND, ∧) corresponds to intersection. Material implication (→) corresponds to “is a subset of”. Contradiction corresponds to the null set, and tautology corresponds to the universal set.

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Harmonic conversion of space and time

May 15, 2020 5:37 pm ⋅

As noted here, there are two kinds of mean rates: the time mean and the space mean. If the denominators have a common time interval, the time mean is the arithmetic mean and the space mean is the harmonic mean. If the denominators have a common space interval (stance), the space mean is the arithmetic mean and the time mean is the harmonic mean.

For example, light reflected back from a mirror at known distance forms two successive trips whose mean rate is the space mean pace. Several measurements with the same apparatus have a time mean pace. The mean speed is the inverse of the mean pace.

The general principle is that quantities with independent time (such as velocity) and a common time interval use ordinary algebra but such quantities with a common space interval use harmonic algebra. Alternately, quantities with independent space (stance) such as lenticity and a common space interval use ordinary algebra but such quantities with a common time interval use harmonic algebra.

In other words, quantities over the same interval with independent variables use ordinary algebra but quantities with different independent variables use harmonic algebra to convert between them.

For example, addition of velocities with a common time interval use ordinary vector addition (e.g., u + v) but addition of velocities with a common space interval use harmonic vector addition (e.g., ((1/u) + (1/v))−1 ≡ ((u+v)/u·v)−1 with u, v, u·v, u+v ≠ 0.

The relativity parameter γ is based on a (3+1) spatial frame. The parameter γ in a temporal frame with a common time interval (k ≡ 1/c and ℓ ≡ 1/v) is:

γ² = (1 − v·v/c²)−1 ⇒ (1 − ℓ·ℓ/k²)−1.

The parameter γ in a temporal frame with a common space interval (stance) is:

γ² = (1 − v·v/c²)−1 ⇒ H(1 − ℓ·ℓ/k²)−1 = ((1 − k²/ℓ·ℓ)−1)−1 = (1 − k²/ℓ·ℓ) ≡ (1 − v·v/c²) = 1/γ².

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