iSoul In the beginning is reality.

# Home is the horizon

As there is an inverse or harmonic algebra, so there is an inverse geometry, an inverse space. Home, the origin, is the horizon, the ends of the earth, and beyond that, the celestial equator, the heavens. We may attempt to journey to the centre of the earth with Jules Verne, but we’ll never make it because it is infinitely far away. We cannot plumb the ultimate depths within, the deep well of the heart. At the centre of it all is a bottomless pit, the hell of eternal darkness.

The geometric inverse is with respect to a sphere:

By Krishnavedala

P’ is the inverse of P with respect to the circle. The inverse of the centre is the point at infinity.

The order of events in this geometry is their distance from the horizon, not the centre. The return to home is the end of events, the final event. The later the event, the better, since it is closer to the end, to home.

The destination is where we’ve come from and where we return. It is a round trip, a circuit, a cycle of life and change.

What we call the beginning is often the end
And to make an end is to make a beginning.
The end is where we start from. T. S. Eliot, Little Gidding

# Lorentz factor from light clocks

Space and time are inverse perspectives on motion. Space is three dimensions of length. Time is three dimensions of duration. Space is measured by a rigid rod at rest, whereas time is measured by a clock that is always in motion relative to itself.

This is illustrated by deriving the Lorentz factor for time dilation and length contraction from light clocks. The first derivation is in space with a time parameter and the second is in time with a space parameter (stance).

The first figure above shows frame S with a light clock in space as a beam of light reflected back and forth between two mirrored surfaces. Call the height between the surfaces that the light beam travels distance h. Let one time cycle Δt = 2h/c or h = cΔt/2, with speed of light c, which is the maximum speed.

The second figure shows frame with the same light clock as observed by someone moving with velocity v relative to S. Call the length of each half-cycle d, and call the length of the base of one cycle in space b.

# Proper and improper rates

The independent quantity in a proper rate is the denominator. The independent quantity in an improper rate is the numerator. If a rate is multiplied by a quantity with the units of the independent quantity and the result has the units of the dependent quantity, it is proper. Otherwise, it is improper.

A proper rate becomes improper if the proper rate is inverted. An improper rate becomes proper if the improper rate is inverted. If two or more improper rates are added, each must first be inverted. The result of adding proper rates must be inverted again to return to the original improper rate. This is harmonic addition:

$\frac{b}{a_{1}}+\frac{b}{a_{2}}&space;\Rightarrow&space;\left&space;(\frac{a_{1}}{b}+\frac{a_{2}}{b}&space;\right)^{-1}$

If the addition of improper rates is divided by the number of addends so that it is the average or arithmetic mean of the inverted rates, then the result inverted is the harmonic mean:

$\frac{1}{2}\left&space;(\frac{b}{a_{1}}+\frac{b}{a_{2}}&space;\right&space;)&space;\Rightarrow&space;\left&space;(&space;\frac{1}{2}&space;\left&space;(\frac{a_{1}}{b}+\frac{a_{2}}{b}&space;\right&space;)&space;\right)^{-1}$

Time speed is the speed of a body measured by the distance traversed in a known time, which is a proper rate because the independent quantity, time, is the denominator. Space speed is the speed of a body measured by the time it takes to transverse a known distance, which is an improper rate because the independent quantity, distance, is the numerator. Space speeds are averaged by the harmonic mean and called the space mean speed. The time mean speed is the arithmetic mean of time speeds.

Velocity normalized by the speed of light is proper because the invariant speed of light is independent. The speed of light divided by a velocity is improper and must be added harmonically. Lenticity normalized by an hypothesized maximum pace is proper, but if the lenticity is divided by the pace of light, it is improper.

# Space with time and their dual

For the first post in this series see here.

Space with time (3+1)

Space is that which is measured by length; time is that which is measured by duration. There are three dimensions of length and one dimension (or parameter) of duration. Direction in space is measured by an angle, which is part of a circle.

Spatial rates are dependent on another variable, usually interval of time (distime).

Time is that which is measured by duration. Events are ordered by time. Time as an independent variable decreases from the past to the present and increases from the present to the future.

Temporal rates are dependent on another variable, usually the interval of space (stance).

Dual: time with space (1+3)

The dual of space with time is time with space. The dual of space is time and the dual of time is space. Space corresponds to time and time corresponds to space.

Time is that which is measured by duration; space is that which is measured by length. There are three dimensions of duration and one dimension (or parameter) of length. Direction in time is measured by a turn, which is part of a rotation.

Temporal rates are dependent on another variable, usually interval of space (stance).

Space is that which is measured by length. Events are ordered by length (stance). Space as an independent variable decreases from a past there to here and increases from here to a future there.

Spatial rates are dependent on another variable, usually the interval of time (distime). Read more →

# Number and algebra and their dual

For the first post in this series, see here.

(1) Set theory and logic, (2) number and algebra, and (3) space and time are three foundational topics that have dual approaches. Let us begin with the standard approaches to these three topics, and then define duals to each of them. In some ways, the original and the dual may be used together.

(2) Number and algebra

The concept of counting and number is as universal as language, though the full definition of number did not occur until the 19th century. Algebra came to the West from India and Arabia in the Middle Ages but its formal definition did not occur until the 19th century. Abstract algebra also began in the 19th century.

The basic rules of algebra are as follows: addition and multiplication are commutative and associative; multiplication distributes over addition; addition and multiplication have identities and inverses with one exception: there is no multiplicative inverse for zero.

An idea of infinity comes from taking the limit of a number as its value approaches zero: ∞ ∼ 1/x as x → 0. Infinity can be partially incorporated via limits.

Dual: harmonic numbers

An additive dual can be defined by negating every number. A more interesting dual comes from taking the multiplicative dual of every number. This latter case can be called harmonic numbers and harmonic algebra because of its relation to the harmonic mean.

The harmonic isomorphism relates every number x to its harmonic dual by H(x) := 1/y. The dual of zero is ∞.

For harmonic algebra: see here.

Harmonic algebra is the multiplicative inverse of ordinary algebra. There is a sense in which harmonic algebra counts down rather than up. Zero in harmonic numbers is like infinity in ordinary numbers. Larger harmonic numbers correspond to smaller ordinary numbers. Smaller harmonic numbers correspond to larger ordinary numbers.

# Set theory and logic and their dual

(1) Set theory and logic, (2) number and algebra, and (3) space and time are three foundational topics that each have duals. Let us begin with the standard approaches to these three topics, and then define duals to each of them. To some extent, the original and the dual may be used together.

(1) Set theory and logic

A set is defined by its elements or members. Its properties may also be known or specified, but what is essential to a set is its members, not its properties. The notation for “x is an element of set S” is “x ∈ S”. A subset is a set whose members are all within another set: “s is a subset of S” is “s ⊆ S”. If subset s does not (or cannot) equal S, then it is a proper subset: “s ⊂ S”.

The null set (∅) is a unique set defined as having no members. That is paradoxical but not contradictory. A universal set (Ω) is defined as having all members within a particular universe. An unrestricted universal set is not defined because it would lead to contradictions.

The complement of a set (c) is the set of all elements within a particular universe that are not in the set. A union (∪) of sets is the set containing all members of the referenced sets. An intersection (∩) of sets is defined as the set whose members are contained in every referenced set.

Set theory has a well-known correspondence with logic: negation (¬) corresponds to complement, disjunction (OR, ∨) corresponds to union, and conjunction (AND, ∧) corresponds to intersection. Material implication (→) corresponds to “is a subset of”. Contradiction corresponds to the null set, and tautology corresponds to the universal set.

# Harmonic conversion of space and time

As noted here, there are two kinds of mean rates: the time mean and the space mean. If the denominators have a common time interval, the time mean is the arithmetic mean and the space mean is the harmonic mean. If the denominators have a common space interval (stance), the space mean is the arithmetic mean and the time mean is the harmonic mean.

For example, light reflected back from a mirror at known distance forms two successive trips whose mean rate is the space mean pace. Several measurements with the same apparatus have a time mean pace. The mean speed is the inverse of the mean pace.

The general principle is that quantities with independent time (such as velocity) and a common time interval use ordinary algebra but such quantities with a common space interval use harmonic algebra. Alternately, quantities with independent space (stance) such as lenticity and a common space interval use ordinary algebra but such quantities with a common time interval use harmonic algebra.

In other words, quantities over the same interval with independent variables use ordinary algebra but quantities with different independent variables use harmonic algebra to convert between them.

For example, addition of velocities with a common time interval use ordinary vector addition (e.g., u + v) but addition of velocities with a common space interval use harmonic vector addition (e.g., ((1/u) + (1/v))−1 ≡ ((u+v)/u·v)−1 with u, v, u·v, u+v0.

The relativity parameter γ is based on a (3+1) spatial frame. The parameter γ in a temporal frame with a common time interval (k ≡ 1/c and ≡ 1/v) is:

γ² = (1 − v·v/c²)−1 ⇒ (1 − ℓ·ℓ/k²)−1.

The parameter γ in a temporal frame with a common space interval (stance) is:

γ² = (1 − v·v/c²)−1 ⇒ H(1 − ℓ·ℓ/k²)−1 = ((1 − k²/ℓ·ℓ)−1)−1 = (1 − k²/ℓ·ℓ) ≡ (1 − v·v/c²) = 1/γ².

# Interchanging space and time

The space-time exchange invariance, as stated by J. H. Field (see here) has an implicit second part. In addition to (1) the exchange (or interchange) of space and time coordinates, there is (2): the exchange of linear and harmonic algebra for ratios. Harmonic algebra is described here.

This is seen in the different averaging methods for velocities that differ spatially vs. velocities that differ temporally. If two vehicles take the same route, their average velocity is their arithmetic mean (u + v)/2, but if one vehicle has velocity u going and velocity v returning, then the average velocity is their harmonic mean 2/(1/u + 1/v). However, if one vehicle has pace u going and pace v returning, then the average pace is their arithmetic mean, but if two vehicles take the same route, their average pace is their harmonic mean.

Space and time are related to each other as covariant and contravariant components. If space is covariant, then time is contravariant, and if time is covariant, then space is contravariant.

The equations of space-time (3+1) and time-space (1+3) physics are symmetric to one another with the interchange of space and time dimensions. The equations of spacetime (4D) physics is self-symmetric. The interchange of space and time dimensions produces equivalent 4D equations.

To interchange the space and time coordinates, take these steps: For the equations of classical physics, (1) ensure either space or time is a parameter, (2) interchange one dimension with the parameter, and (3) expand the single dimension into three dimensions. For the equations of relativistic physics, (1) ensure there is a symmetry between space and time dimensions, (2) interchange one space and time dimension but leave dimensionless quantities unchanged, and (3) expand the single dimension into three dimensions.

These steps reflect the difference between Galileo’s and Einstein’s relativity. Galileo transforms one frame into another frame but does not combine frames as Einstein’s does. For example, Einstein requires all frames to have the same orientation, but Galileo accepts frame-specific orientations such as the right-hand rule.

The Galilean transformation represents the addition and subtraction of velocities as vectors. The dual Galilean transformation represents the addition and subtraction of lenticities as vectors. The Lorentz transformation represents the combination of Galilean and dual-Galilean transformations, as previously shown.

# Galilean decompositions of the Lorentz transform

The background for this post is the previous one, here.

The gamma transformation (Γ) expresses the time dilation of clocks and length contraction of rods with a relative speed:

$\begin{pmatrix}&space;\gamma&space;&&space;0&space;\\&space;0&space;&&space;1/\gamma&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;ct&space;\\&space;x&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;=&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;\gamma&space;ct&space;\\&space;x/\gamma&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;=&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;c{t}'&space;\\&space;{x}'&space;\end{pmatrix}$

The gamma transformation is conjugate to the Lorentz boost (Λ), i.e., GTΓG = Λ:

or

$\begin{pmatrix}&space;1&space;&&space;0&space;\\&space;-\beta&space;&&space;1&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;\gamma&space;&&space;0&space;\\&space;0&space;&&space;1/\gamma&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;1&space;&&space;-\beta&space;\\&space;0&space;&&space;1&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;=&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;\gamma&space;&&space;-\beta&space;\gamma&space;\\&space;-\beta&space;\gamma&space;&&space;\gamma&space;\end{pmatrix}$

or

$\begin{pmatrix}&space;1&space;&&space;-\beta&space;\\&space;0&space;&&space;1&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;1/\gamma&space;&&space;0&space;\\&space;0&space;&&space;\gamma&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;1&space;&&space;0&space;\\&space;-\beta&space;&&space;1&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;=&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;1&space;&&space;-\beta&space;\\&space;0&space;&&space;1&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;1/\gamma&space;&&space;-\beta\gamma&space;\\&space;0&space;&&space;\gamma&space;\end{pmatrix}&space;=&space;\begin{pmatrix}&space;\gamma&space;&&space;-\beta&space;\gamma&space;\\&space;-\beta&space;\gamma&space;&&space;\gamma&space;\end{pmatrix}$

The matrix second from the right represents the Tangherlini transformation (or inertial synchronized Tangherlini transformation).

Time-space (1+3) has a different decomposition:

Note that β and γ are inverted and do not require a superluminal speed.

# Two-way transformations

The transformations associated with Galileo and Lorentz are two of several transformations between frames of reference. A one-way transformation assumes that the one-way speed of light is a constant, whereas a two-way transformation does not. Here are the available transformations:

Galilean transformation:  ${x}'&space;\mapsto&space;x-vt;\;&space;\;&space;{t}'&space;\mapsto&space;t.$

Dual Galilean transformation:  ${x}'&space;\mapsto&space;x;\;&space;\;&space;{t}'&space;\mapsto&space;t-wx.$

These could be combined with a selection factor κ of zero or one:

${x}'&space;\mapsto&space;x&space;-&space;\epsilon&space;vt;\;&space;\;&space;{t}'&space;\mapsto&space;t-(1-\epsilon&space;)wx.$

Lorentz transformation (boost): ${x}'&space;\mapsto&space;\gamma&space;(x-vt);\;&space;\;&space;{t}'&space;\mapsto&space;\gamma&space;(t-vx/c^{2})$.

General Lorentz boost (see here): ${x}'&space;\mapsto&space;\gamma&space;(x-vt);\;&space;\;&space;{t}'&space;\mapsto&space;\gamma(t-k^{2}vx)$

with $\gamma&space;=\left&space;(1-\frac{v^{2}}{c^{2}}&space;\right&space;)^{-1}$  and k = 1/c for the Lorentz boost.

General dual Lorentz boost:  ${x}'&space;\mapsto&space;\gamma_{2}&space;(x-kwt);\;&space;\;&space;{t}'&space;\mapsto&space;\gamma_{2}&space;(t-wx)$

with $\gamma_{2}&space;=\left(1-\frac{w^{2}}{k^{2}}&space;\right)^{-1}$and k = 1/c.