Ballistic table based on launching from a height and angle with coasting ascent and descent (no drag, no thrust). Note the handy trigonometry identity for range: 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ. This table is in pdf form here.

The following builds on the book Mathematical Aspects of Classical and Celestial Mechanics, 3rd edition, by Vladimir I. Arnold, Valery V. Kozlov, and Anatoly I. Neishtadt (Springer 2006).

Basic Principles of Classical Mechanics (cf. Chapter 1)

Space and Time

The space where the motion takes place is three-dimensional and Euclidean with a fixed orientation. We shall denote it by E³. We fix some point o ∈ E³ called the “origin of reference”. Then the position of every point s in E³ is uniquely determined by its position vector os = r (whose initial point is o and end point is s). The set of all position vectors forms the three-dimensional vector space ℝ³, which is equipped with the scalar product 〈 , 〉.

The time in which motion takes place has the same structure as the abstract space above. The combined vector space is ℝ³ × ℝ³. The abstractions for space and time are unconnected unless there is defined a fixed relationship between them. Examples of such a fixed relationship include a default rate of motion or a maximum rate of motion. Let us begin without such a relationship.

Position in space is called location and in time is called chronation. The Euclidean metric for space is called length and for time is called duration (or time).

A frame of reference (“frame”) is a method to assign every particle a unique position in a coordinate system of points in ℝ³. Such assignment is known continually and universally, without signals, from the universal extent of the frame. The coordinate system is commonly Cartesian.

A system of reference (“reference system”) is a method to assign every event a unique position in a coordinate system of points in ℝ³ × ℝ³. A reference system is composed of dual frames of reference, one called the space frame and the other called the time frame, such that the time frame is in standard uniform motion relative to the space frame. This requires that given the magnitudes s₁ and s₂ of any two intervals of the curve of motion in the space frame, then the corresponding intervals of the time frame, t₁ and t₂, relative to the space frame satisfy the proportion: s₁:s₂ :: t₁:t₂.

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The following is based on A Course in Modern Mathematical Physics: Groups, Hilbert Space and Differential Geometry by Peter Szekeres (Cambridge UP, 2004) starting with Example 2.29 on page 54 and modifying it for time-space.

The Galilean group. To find the set of transformations of space and time that preserve the laws of Newtonian mechanics we follow the lead of special relativity and define an event to be a point of R⁴ characterized by four coordinates (t₁, t₂, t₃, s). Define Galilean time G⁴ to be the time of events with a structure consisting of three elements:

1. Distance intervals Δs = s₂ − s₁.
2. The distime (temporal distance) Δt = |q₂ − q₁| between any pair of simulstanteous events (events having the same stance coordinate, s₁ = s₂).
3. Motions of facilial (free) particles, otherwise known as rectilinear motions,
   q(s) = ws + q₀,                 (2.19)
   where w and q₀ are arbitrary constant vectors.

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The following is based on the book Mechanics, Third Edition, Volume I of Course of Theoretical Physics by L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, (Butterworth-Heinenann, Oxford 1976.

[Page 1] §1. CHAPTER I – THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

§1. Generalised co-ordinates

ONE of the fundamental concepts of mechanics is that of a particle¹. By this we mean a body whose dimensions may be neglected in describing its motion. The possibility of so doing depends, of course, on the conditions of the problem concerned. For example, the planets may be regarded as particles in considering their motion about the Sun, but not in considering their rotation about their axes.

The position of a particle in time is defined by its chronation vector t, whose components are its Cartesian co-ordinates x, y, z. The derivative w = dt/ds of t with respect to the stance s is called the legerity of the particle, and the second derivative d²t/ds² is its retardation. In what follows we shall denote differentiation with respect to stance by placing a dot above a letter, e.g.: w = ġ.

To define the position of a system of N particles in time, it is necessary to specify N chronation vectors, i.e. 3N co-ordinates. The number of independent quantities which must be specified in order to define uniquely the position of any system is called the number of degrees of freedom; here, this number is 3N. These quantities need not be the Cartesian co-ordinates of the particles, and the conditions of the problem may render some other choice of coordinates more convenient. Any n quantities g₁, g₂, …. g_n which completely define the position of a system with n degrees of freedom are called generalised co-ordinates of the system, and the derivatives ġ_i are called its generalised legerities.

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The following derivation of the Lorentz transformation is slightly revised from the Appendix to Henri Poincaré: a decisive contribution to Relativity by Christian Marchal, originally published in French as Henri Poincaré: une contribution décisive à la Relativité in La Jaune et la Rouge, août-septembre 1999. Marchal is the chief engineer of mines at ONERA, the Office National d’Etudes et de Recherches Aérospatiales. A pdf version is here.

Appendix

The Lorentz transformation

      It is essential to note that the Lorentz transformation is a direct consequence of the principle of relativity and does not require the invariance of the speed of light.

Let us look for this transformation along two axes Ox and O′x′ moving along each other with the constant relative velocity V.

——|—————————————>

      O′                                      x′

———|——————————————————————>

          O                    OO′ = Vt                                      x

In order to obtain perfect symmetry between the two frames of reference, let us put O′x′ in the other direction.

x′                                                               O′

<————————————————————|———

————|———————————————————>

    O                                                        x

Homogeneity will lead to a linear transformation, and if we choose t = t′ = 0 when the two origins O and O′ cross each other, the transformations (x, t) ® (x′, t′) and (x′, t′) ® (x, t) will be given as follows with eight appropriate constants from A to D′:

(4)                    x′ = Ax + Bt                  ;           t′ = Cx + Dt

x = A′x′ + B′t′               ;           t = C′x′ + D′t′

The Principle of Relativity and symmetry lead to:

(5)                    A = A′;             B = B′;              C = C′;              D = D′

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A clock consists of two frames of references. This is seen in an ordinary analogue clock, which is composed of two parts:

Circular Space Frame

The space frame is at rest relative to the observer. The time frame is in uniform angular motion relative to the observer. Measurement of space and time requires both frames. The units marked on the space frame have dual significance: (a) as amounts of space or angles in space, and (b) as amounts of time.

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