This post relates to others such as this.

Consider Galileo’s figure (see his Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, tr. Crew & De Salvio p.249 Fig. 108 or Drake’s translation p.221) below with horizontal and vertical rulers added :

A projectile moves with uniform velocity horizontally to the left and begins to descend at point b. Galileo used the sequence a-b-c-d-e to represent time and the sequence b-o-g-l-n to represent the height of the projectile above the Earth. The sequence b-i-f-h represents the parabolic path of the falling projectile.

Any uniform motion can serve as a reference motion. There are two uses of a reference variable: (i) as a parametric variable, or (ii) as a measurement variable. A parametric variable is an independent variable that provides ordered input for any dependent variable. A measurement variable is a variable that is dependent on the independent variable being measured. In the figure above the parametric variable is the time (duration) of the uniform motion on the horizontal axis, and the measurement variable is the height (length) of the uniform acceleration on the vertical axis.

Combine this with the two measures of motion, length and duration, and there are four possible cases: (1) independent duration variable with dependent length variable; (2) independent length variable with dependent duration variable; (3) independent length variable with dependent length variable; and (4) independent duration variable with dependent duration variable.

The figure above is an example of case (1). Its complement is case (2). Cases (3) and (4) include only one measure, length or duration, and so cannot express a rate of motion. Galileo expresses case (1) as a proportion between ratios of the variables at different times: s₁ : s₂ :: t₁² : t₂², which avoids combining different units in a single ratio, consistent with Eudoxian proportionality.

Consider case (2) in which the independent variable is length. This variable is a baseline for locating other motions, which is like a timeline except that it expresses an independent length as the order parameter. The dependent reference variable in this case is duration, which measures any independent variable, in this case projectile height. This could be expressed as a proportion between ratios of the variables at different times: t₁ : t₂ :: s₁² : s₂², avoiding different units in a single ratio.

Case (1) enables multiple length variables dependent on one independent variable, the timeline. Case (2) enables multiple duration variables dependent on one independent variable, the baseline. Rates of motion in case (1) are in units of the independent timeline, which is duration. Rates of motion in case (2) are in units of the independent baseline, which is length.

Let’s start with one-dimensional, i.e., scalar, functions, f, g, h, and k. Say there is the following functional relation:

s = f(t) = f(h(s)) ≡ g(s) = t,

t = g(s) = g(k(t)) ≡ f(t) = s,

in which s and t are parameters with different units. By implication the functions are either f or its inverse:

s = f(t) = f(f^-1(s)) = t,

t = f^-1(s) = f^-1(f(t)) = s.

Function f takes t-units into s-units, and function f^-1 takes s-units into t-units. The vector versions are as follows:

s = f(t) = f(f^-1(s)) = t,

t = f^-1(s) = f^-1(f(t)) = s.

Motion space is an ordered pair of vectors s and t: (s, t), resulting in their direct sum vector space. Addition is conducted by components: (r, w) + (s, t) = (r + s, w + t). Scalar multiplication is also by component: (a, b) (s, t) = (as, bt). To multiply a scalar and only one component requires the other component to be unity. Thus additive unity is (0, 0) and multiplicative unity is (1, 1).

There are two ways to mask an ordered pair of vectors: left mask (s, t)^⌊ = (s, t) and right mask (s, t)^⌋ = (s, t), where s = |s| and t = |t|. What was described here as expansion and contraction may now be shown more clearly as masking and unmasking. A parametric length vector function is converted to a parametric duration vector function as follows:

r(t) = masked r(t) ↑ unmasked r(t) ↔ (inverted) = unmasked t(r) ↓ masked t(r) = t(r).

r(t) = [r(t), θ(t), φ(t)] ↑ [r´(t´, χ´, ψ´), θ´(t´, χ´, ψ´), φ´(t´, χ´, ψ´)] ↔ (t´(r´, θ´, φ´), χ´(r´, θ´, φ´), ψ´(r´, θ´, φ´)) ↓ [t(r), χ(r), ψ(r)] = t(r).

Isaac Newton expanded on what is now called the Galilean transformation (GT). The GT encapsulates a whole approach to physics. Length and duration are independent variables, and accordingly are universal, and may be measured by any observer. The length of a body is a universal value. The duration of a motion is a universal value. These values are independent of the control or condition of an observer.

Albert Einstein expanded on what is now called the Lorentz transformation (LT). The LT encapsulates a whole approach to physics. There are two universal constants: the speed of light in a vacuum and the orientation of reference frames. These constants are independent of any observer, though the speed of light may be measured by any observer. The orientation of reference frames is assumed to be the same universally, as if all are aligned with the fixed stars according to a universal convention.

Galileo described the relativity of speed, so that inertial observers do not have a universal speed but have speeds relative to other inertial observers. There is no universal maximum one-way speed. The two-way speed of light is a universal constant, but one leg of its journey may be instantaneous by convention, consistent with common ways of speaking. The orientation of reference frames is also relative, so that two frames view each others’ velocities as having the same direction.

Einstein described the relativity of length and duration, depending on their relative speed, which is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum. By convention, the mean of the two-way speed of light is assigned to every leg of its journey. Since the orientation of reference frames is the same, two frames view each other’s velocities as opposite in direction.

The strength of Newton’s vision is his mechanics and its continuity with common ways of speaking. The strength of Einstein’s vision is its continuity with Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism.

Note: The Galilean transformation is related to the Lorentz transformation in one of three ways: (1) as c → ∞, (2) as v → 0, or (3) as the simultaneity of the backward (or forward) light cone (i.e., c₀ = ∞) [see here].

(1) Newton’s Second Law

Momentum is defined as the product of mass m and velocity v. The mass of a body is a scalar, though not necessarily a constant. Velocity is a vector equal to the time rate of change of location, v = ds/dt.

The time rate of change in momentum is dp/dt = m dv/dt + v dm/dt = ma + v dm/dt by the rules of differential calculus and the definition of acceleration, a.

If mass is constant, then v dm/dt equals zero and the equation reduces to dp/dt = ma. If we define F = dp/dt, then we get Newton’s famous F = ma.

The dual equation is derived similarly:

Fulmentum is defined as the product of vass n and legerity u. The vass of a body is a scalar, though not necessarily a constant. Legerity is a vector equal to the base rate of change of chronation, u = dt/ds.

The base rate of change in fulmentum is dq/ds = n du/ds + u dn/ds = nb + u dn/ds by the rules of differential calculus and the definition of expedience, b.

If vass is constant, then u dn/ds equals zero and the equation reduces to dq/dt = nb. If we define R = dq/ds, then we get the dual of Newton’s second law, R = nb.

(2) Work and kinetic energy

Read more →