iSoul In the beginning is reality.

# Space Time Speed Pace and Mean

Legend: x-axis coordinate, x; length interval, Δx; unit of length, ; t-axis coordinate, t; time interval, Δt; unit of time, .

For scalars:

 Rates Speed/Pace Symbols Space Time Ordinary Time speed Δx(t)/t̂ measure length/distance/ displacement given period/unit Alternate Space speed x̂/Δt(x) given length/distance/unit measure interval/period /dischronment Inverse Space pace Δt(x)/x̂ given length/distance/unit measure interval/period /dischronment Alt. Inverse Time pace t̂/Δx(t) measure length/distance/ displacement given period/unit Point Ordinary Instantaneous speed dx(t)/dt given length/distance/ displacement given instant Alternate Punctaneous speed dx/dt(x)= 1/(dt/dx) given point given interval/period Inverse Punctaneous pace dt(x)/dx given point given interval/period Alt. Inverse Instantaneous pace dt/dx(t)= 1/(dx/dt) given length/distance/ displacement given instant

# Duality of subject and object

This post reflects a previous one here.

Color (or colour) is both subjective and objective. Objectively, the rays of color light from a glass prism are different wavelengths (or frequencies) of light. The colors we see are those that reflect from objects; the others are absorbed. Colors are additive. Primary colors are red, green, blue; secondary colors are cyan, magenta, yellow.

But wavelengths go beyond the visible spectrum. Color is a visual phenomenon so human perceptions are what makes the different colors.

People perceive different colors differently. This is part cultural, part individual. Color symbolism varies over the world. See here. Pigment colors are subtractive. See here. Primary colors are cyan, magenta, yellow; secondary colors are red, green, blue.

Color is both subjective and objective. It has a subjective side and an objective side. There is a color duality.

The arts and the sciences form a duality. The arts are (ultimately) subjective. The sciences are (ultimately) objective. Style and taste are important in the arts but not in the sciences. Standards and measurements are important in the sciences but not in the arts.

Communication is a duality of subjectivity and objectivity. A subject expresses themselves but only subjectively unless they attend to the meanings of words and sentences so that others can objectively understand.

The arts have forms and expectations to facilitate communication while emphasizing the subjective. The sciences allow flexibility for subjects to express the objective content of their work.

History is an art because it expresses a narrative that emphasizes some people and events over other people and events. Science avoids giving undo emphasis to anything other than the elements of a science. Science and history are a duality.

Dualities are not dualisms. A dualism divides reality into two separate classes. Dualities distinguish two but do not see them as conflicting. Dualities combine two into one.

# Instantaneous time and space speed

This post relates to the previous one here.

Speed is the time rate of distance traversed. Pace is the space rate of elapsed time.

The time speed of a body is the distance traversed per unit of independent time without regard to direction, Δx/. The instantaneous speed is the time speed at a point in space and time: dx(t)/dt. It is the reciprocal of the instantaneous pace, 1/(dt(x)/dx).

The space speed of a body is the independent distance traversed per elapsed time, Δx/Δt. The puncstanceous speed is the space speed at a point in time and space: dx(t)/dt.

The space pace of a body is the traversal time per unit of independent distance without regard to direction, Δt(x)/. The puncstanceous pace is time pace at a point in time and space: dt(x)/dx.

The time pace of a body is the independent traversal time per distance traversed, Δt/Δx(t). It is the reciprocal of time speed. The instantaneous pace is the space pace at a point in space and time: dt/dx(t). It is the reciprocal of the puncstanceous speed 1/(dx(t)/dt).

The time velocity of a body is the displacement traversed per unit of independent time, Δx/. The instantaneous velocity is the time velocity at a point in space and time: dx(t)/dt. It is the reciprocal of the puncstanceous lenticity: 1/(dt(x)/dx).

The space velocity of a body is the independent displacement traversed per elapsed time at a location, Δx(t)/Δt. The puncstanceous velocity is the time velocity at a point in time and space: dx(t)/dt.

The space lenticity of a body is the dischronment per unit of independent length, Δt(x)/. The puncstanceous lenticity is the time lenticity at a point in time and space: dt(x)/dx.

The time lenticity of a body is the independent traversal time per distance traversed, Δtx(t). It is  the reciprocal of time velocity. The instantaneous lenticity is the space lenticity at a point in space and time: dt/dx(t). It is the reciprocal of the instantaneous velocity: 1/(dt(x)/dx).

# Reciprocal derivative, part 1

The reciprocal difference quotient is

$\frac{\Delta&space;x}{\Delta&space;f(x)}=\frac{h}{f(x+h)-f(x)}$

The reciprocal derivative of f(x), symbolized by a reversed prime, is the limit of the reciprocal difference quotient as h approaches zero:

$\grave{}f(x)=\lim_{h\rightarrow&space;0}\frac{\Delta&space;x}{\Delta&space;f(x)}=&space;\lim_{h\rightarrow&space;0}\frac{h}{f(x+h)-f(x)}$

An alternate limit form of the reciprocal derivative definition of f(a) is

$\grave{}f(a)=\lim_{x\rightarrow&space;a}=&space;\frac{x-a}{f(x)-f(a)}$

The reciprocal derivative of a linear function, f(x) = ax + b, is

$\grave{}f(x)=\lim_{h\rightarrow&space;0}\frac{h}{f(x+h)-f(x)}=&space;\lim_{h\rightarrow&space;0}\frac{h}{a(x+h)+b-ax-b}=&space;\lim_{h\rightarrow&space;0}\frac{h}{ah}=\frac{1}{a}$

The reciprocal derivative of a power function, f(x) = xn, is

$\grave{}f(a)=\lim_{x\rightarrow&space;a}\frac{x-a}{f(x)-f(a)}=&space;\lim_{x\rightarrow&space;a}\frac{x-a}{x^{n}-a^{n}}=&space;\frac{1}{na^{n-1}}=\frac{1}{n}a^{1-n}$

A rate is the quotient of two quantities with different, but related, units. A unit rate is a rate with a unit quantity, usually the denominator. A vector rate is a rate with a vector quantity, usually the numerator. Rates with the same units may be added, subtracted, and averaged.

Rates with the same units in their denominator are added using ordinary addition, which will be called arithmetic addition since addition takes place in the numerator. For example, if x1 and x2 are lengths, and t is a given time interval, then the time speed rates v1 and v2 are added by arithmetic addition:

$v_{1}+v_{2}=\frac{x_{1}}{t}+\frac{x_{2}}{t}&space;=\frac{x_{1}+x_{2}}{t}&space;=&space;v_{3}$

If x1 and x2 are displacements, and t is a given time interval, then the time velocity rates v1 and v2 are added by arithmetic addition:

$\mathbf{v}_{1}+\mathbf{v}_{2}&space;=\frac{\mathbf{x}_{1}}{t}+\frac{\mathbf{x}_{2}}{t}&space;=\frac{\mathbf{x}_{1}+\mathbf{x}_{2}}{t}&space;=&space;\mathbf{v}_{3}$

# Harmonic vector realm

This post expands on Harmonic Algebra posted here.

A vector space, or better a vector realm, to avoid connecting it with physical space, is a set V on which two operations + and · are defined, called vector addition and scalar multiplication.

The operation + (vector addition) must satisfy the following conditions:

Closure: If u and v are any vectors in V, then the sum u + v belongs to V.
(1) Commutative law: For all vectors u and v in V, u + v = v + u
(2) Associative law: For all vectors u, v, w in V, u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w
(3) Additive identity: The set V contains an additive identity element, usually denoted by 0, such that for any vector v in V, 0 + vv and v + 0 = v.
(4) Additive inverses: For any vector v in V, the equations v + x = 0 and x + v = 0 have a solution x in V, called an additive inverse of v, and denoted by −v.

The operation · (scalar multiplication) is defined between real numbers (or scalars) and vectors, and must satisfy the following conditions:

Closure: If v is any vector in V, and c is any real number, then the product c · v belongs to V.
(5) Distributive law: For all real numbers c and all vectors uv in V, c · (u + v) = c · u + c · v
(6) Distributive law: For all real numbers c, d and all vectors v in V, (c + d) · v = c · v + d · v
(7) Associative law: For all real numbers c, d and all vectors v in V, c · (d · v) = (cd) · v
(8) Multiplicative identity: The set V contains a multiplicative identity element, usually denoted by 1, such that for any vector v in V, 1 · v = v

Consider the non-zero real numbers together with the element ∞ as components of Euclidean vectors, with · as the usual dot product, and vector addition defined as harmonic addition:

$\mathbf{u}\oplus&space;\mathbf{v}=\left&space;[&space;\mathbf{u}^{-1}+\mathbf{v}^{-1}&space;\right&space;]^{-1}$

which is undefined for zero vectors, but has the additive identity ∞ (infinity). It is isomorphic to the vector space (or realm) with 0 as the additive identity.

The independent variable is usually in the denominator but if the independent variable is in the numerator, then the denominator contains a dependent variable. See here for what this looks like. The addition of quotients with a dependent vector in the denominator follows the above.

# Vector inverse and mean

This post is based on research papers by Anderson and Trapp, Berlinet, and the post on Harmonic algebra.

The vector inverse x−1 is defined as

$\mathbf{x}^{-1}=\frac{\mathbf{x}}{\|x\|^{2}}=\frac{\mathbf{x}}{\mathbf{x}\cdot&space;\mathbf{x}}$

with positive norm. For a non-zero scalar k,

$(k\mathbf{x})^{-1}=\frac{k\mathbf{x}}{\|k\mathbf{x}\|^{2}}=\frac{\mathbf{\mathbf{x}}}{k\|\mathbf{x}\|^{2}}=\frac{1}{k}\mathbf{x}^{-1}$

$\|\mathbf{x}^{-1}\|&space;=&space;\|\mathbf{x}||^{-1}$

The harmonic (or parallel) sum is usually symbolized by a colon (:), but I prefer a circle plus to maintain its relation with addition. The harmonic sum of vectors x and y is defined as

$\mathbf{x}\oplus&space;\mathbf{y}=\left&space;[&space;\mathbf{x}^{-1}+\mathbf{y}^{-1}&space;\right&space;]^{-1}$

if x0, y0, and x + y0; otherwise the sum equals 0.

# With and between independent variables

This post continues the previous post here on independent and dependent variables.

The selection of a physical independent variable (or variables) applies to a context such as an experiment. Within that context all other variables are, at least potentially, dependent on the independent variable(s) selected. Functions with the physical independent variable as a functional independent variable have a common independent variable and form a kind of closed system.

Nevertheless, an independent variable in one context may be the same as a dependent variable in another context. The functions in both of these contexts may be related. That is, there may be relations between the functions of one independent variable in one context and the functions of another independent variable in another context.

~For example, speed (the time speed) is defined as the change in distance per unit of time with time as the independent variable. This appears to be equal to the reciprocal of the pace, that is, the change in distance per unit of time with distance as the independent variable. This is called the space speed (sometimes called the inverse speed).

~However, these two speeds are not the same. One difference is how the speeds are aggregated or averaged: time speed requires arithmetic addition and arithmetic averaging but space speed requires harmonic addition and harmonic averaging. The arithmetic average of speeds v1 and v2 is (v1 + v2)/2. The harmonic average of space speeds v1 and v2 is 2/(1/v1 + 1/v2).

A quasi-variable is a dependent variable in the denominator as if it were an independent variable. If it is a first-order variable, one can take the reciprocal to put it into its proper dependent position, the numerator. Second and higher order variables need to use their inter-functional relation.

One should always use mathematical variables and functions that mirror the physical variables and functions. A physically independent variable should always appear as the argument in a mathematical function. A physically dependent variable should always appear as a function, even if the functional relation is uncertain.

To continue the example above, the space speed should be stated mathematically as dx/dt(x) so that distance is shown as an independent variable and time is shown as a dependent variable. Harmonic addition (see harmonic algebra) is for adding quotients whose denominator is a function of the numerator.

# Distance as an independent variable

A previous post here gives “Motion as a Function of Distance” in which distance is a functional but not a physical independent variable. So distance is an independent variable of the inverse of the function of motion as a function of time. But this functional independence does not change the original independent variable of time.

In this post distance is the physical independent variable. At first it will be the functional independent variable, too, but then time will be the functional independent variable. We will see that the physical independent variable remains and does not allow the change of function to change its character.

We begin at Leutzbach’s section I.1.2, Distance-dependent Description, with one important change, the distance-dependent functions are the same (up to a conversion factor) as the time-dependent ones:

Distance-dependent Description

We define a new parameter as a function of distance, which is analogous to speed. This means that motion is represented in a t-x-coordinate system. This new parameter pace or lenticity (vector form) equals the change in time per unit distance [s/m] as a function of distance is defined as

f(x) = w(x) = dt(x)/dx

by analogy with

f(t) = v(t) = dx(t)/dt

with time, or duration, t, a function of distance t(x). The function f is the same in both cases, with a conversion constant between x and t supressed or equal to one.

# Independent and dependent variables

There are two kinds of independent variables: (1) functional independent variables, and (2) physical independent variables. To avoid confusion an independent variable it is standard that a variable be of both kinds, since being of one kind does not imply being of the other kind.

A physical independent in an experiment remains the independent variable throughout the experiment. A function with a functionally independent variable that is also a physical independent variable remains a physical independent variable even if the function is changed into one with a different functional independent variable, as a non-standard case.

There are two ways of expressing an independent variable: (1) its value is fixed or controlled separately from measuring any dependent variable, or (2) its values are a pre-defined sequence of values within the experiment, but they may be imagined to continue indefinitely beyond the experiment. Once the independent variable is determined, then one or more dependent variables can be measured in relation to it.

Examples of the first way are specifying a time interval and then taking a measurement for the specified interval of time. One could also specify a distance, and then measure the elapsed time. It is important to note that if the distance is independent, it is absolute within the experiment, whereas time is relative.

The second way commonly makes time the independent variable, which is absolute within the experiment. Space in the form of distances (spaces) can also be the independent variable, which is called stance so that stance intervals are distances. In this case stance is absolute within the experiment, whereas time is relative.

If time is the independent variable, the universe of the experiment is spatio-temporal (dimensionally 3+1). If space (stance) is the independent variable, the universe of the experiment is temporo-spatial (dimensionally 1+3).

The independent variable is in the denominator of a rate. Otherwise, the rate must be inverted. For example, the spatio-temporal rate of motion is speed or velocity; the temporo-spatial rates are pace or lenticity. To add vectors one must have the independent variable in the denominator. So to add velocity or lenticity one adds them as vectors. However, velocity in a temporo-spatial context requires one must invert the velocity before adding. Similarly, lenticity in a spatial-temporal context requires one must invert the lenticity before adding. This is the reason that the harmonic mean is used to average velocities in a temporo-spatial context.

If one maps the variables, then the independent variable should be the background map that the dependent variables are indicated on. For example, a map of the local geography forms the background for indicating the location of various dependent variables in the foreground. A temporo-spatial map has a time scale in the background with the chronation of various dependent event variables indicated on the foreground.